Mosques in Poland. Past and present more

Agata S. Nalborczyk Mosques in Poland. Past and present There are three purpose­built mosques in Poland, with another mosque currently under construction. However, many more buildings of this kind existed in Poland in the past, owing to the traditionally tolerant laws for religious minorities, including the Muslim faith. During the first half of the 20th century, however, there were cases when it was impossible for mosques to be built because of complexities outside the legal framework. The current legal situation permits construction of sacred buildings by officially­recognized denominations, including Islam. Today there are few Muslims in Poland, approximately 25–35 thousand people, which constitutes about 0.07–0.09%1 of the population. This article presents the history and legal status of mosques in Poland, with emphasis on the 20th century and the present. History of mosques in Poland The first mosques were built in the Polish­Lithuanian state by Muslim Tatars residing in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Tatars came from the Golden Horde, whose sovereigns practiced Islam since the 13th century (Borawski and Dubiński 1986: 15). In the 14th century Vytautas the Great began settling Tatars in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.2 They were mostly vassals, who were granted a fiefdom in return for mili­ tary service (Kryczyński 2000 [1938]: 17). They enjoyed various privileges such as reli­ gious freedom and the right to build mosques (Borawski 1980: 43f). Muslim Tatars came to the territory of modern Poland in the 17th century, when Jan III Sobieski endowed them with lands in Podlachia (Pol. Podlasie). The first record of mosques in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania came from the 16th century. The mosques of Lithuanian Tatars were built with funds from usually poor local communities (Konopacki 2010: 110f). It is interesting to note that Tatars who served lords were granted by their masters the financial means to build their prayer houses (Borawski 1991: 33f; Konopacki 2010: 114f). The mosques were built by local 1 According to the article 53 of the act 7 of the Polish Constitution: “No one may be com­ pelled by organs of public authority to disclose his philosophy of life, religious convictions or belief”. 2 For the history of Tatar settlement in Lithuania and Lithuanian­Tatar relations see Tyszkiewicz (1989: 158f). 184 Muslims in Poland and Eastern Europe carpenters who constructed Catholic and Orthodox churches, which is why the concept and appearance of the buildings were so similar. These were rather modest and simple buildings (Kryczyński 2000 [1938]: 165f; Drozd 1999: 16f). Until the 17th century there were no formal obligatory stipulations or restraints to the construction of Muslim sacred places (Konopacki 2010: 105f). It was only in 1668 that the constraint on building mosques was introduced on the land where previously no such buildings had existed (Drozd 1999: 14). However, there were exceptions, as demonstrated by new mosques built in Kruszyniany and Bohoniki on the territory of newly­bestowed lands in Podlachia in 1679. Freedom to erect new mosques and ren­ ovate existing mosques was unequivocally granted by the Constitution of 1768 and rat­ ified by the Constitution of 1775 (Konopacki 2010: 109). Historical sources do not record any protests in the Polish­Lithuanian state against the building of the mosques or any hostility towards the already­existing buildings (Kryczyński 2000 [1938]: 159), apart from one exception, when in 1609 a fa­ natical crowd ravaged the mosque in Trakai (Pol. Troki). However, this took place dur­ ing a period of escalated religious activity in the course of counter­reformation (Sobczak 1984: 104). According to Stanisław Kryczyński (2000 [1938]: 160f), before 1795, when Poland lost its independence for more than 100 years, there were 23 mosques and five prayer houses in Lithuania.3 Endeavors to build new mosques in Poland in 1918–1939 After Poland regained its independence in the period between the two World Wars, 17 mosques and 2 prayer houses existed within Polish borders.4 Initially after the World War I, numerous mosques needed renovation or restoration. Thanks to financial help from the Ministry of Religious Denominations and Public Enlightenment, Tatar emigrants from the United States and Egypt’s contribution (King Fuad I’s donation; Drozd 1999: 16) it was possible to renovate the majority of mosques.5 All the mosques were wooden with the exception of one in Minsk, made of brick and founded in 1902 with parishioners’ contributions (Miśkiewicz and Kamocki 2004: 100). During this period, Polish authorities supported financially the officially recog­ nized religions, including Islam. In December 1925 the Muslim Religious Union in the 3 There were few mosques more in Volyn annexed to the Polish Crown in 1569 (Kryczyński 2000 [1938]: 161). Turkish historian, Paşa Peçevi (1572–1650) noted in his Tarih­i Peçevi that in the 17th century Tatars owned 60 mosques (Kryczyński 1937: 17). However, Andrzej Drozd (1999: 14) thinks there were only 20. 4 Altogether, 19 Muslim communities (called parishes) with sacred buildings (Kryczyński 2000 [1938]: 162–163). 5 Only the mosque in Studzianka, destroyed in 1916, was not reconstructed, since after the World War I the Tatar community did not exist in this village any longer (Miśkiewicz 1990: 88). The first mosque was erected in Studzianka in the 18th century and it was renovated in 1817 (Węda 2009: 4–5). Agata S. Nalborczyk Mosques in Poland. Past and present Republic of Poland (Muzułmański Związek Religijny, MZR) was established with the approval of the Ministry of Interior and Administration and thanks to the financial help of the Ministry of Religious Denominations and Public Enlightenment.6 The statute of the Union was approved by the Ministry and its relations with the Polish authorities were eventually regulated in 1936 by the Act defining the relationship between the state and the Muslim Religious Union in the Republic of Poland. Jakub Szynkiewicz PhD, a specialist in Oriental studies (1884–1966), was appointed Mufti. According to this Act, the government was legally obliged to support financially the Muslim Religious Union (article 38) and mosques were exempt from taxation and other payments (article 41). However, in spite of this financial support Muslims had to finance construction of their places of prayer by themselves. No new mosques were built in that period despite the plans for construction in Vilnius and Warsaw. The Tatars owned one small modest wooden mosque in Łukiszki district (Kryczyński 1937: 13f) and just before World War I they founded a committee charged with the construction of a new mosque. It was to be made of brick and was designed by Professor Stefan Kryczyński, an architect of Tatar origin.7 Twenty thou­ sand rubles were collected and then lost, together with other Community funds, dur­ ing the War (Kryczyński 1937: 20), and it was impossible to start the project before 1939 (Miśkiewicz 1990: 89). However, the mosque in Vilnius was considered to be one of the most significant in Poland and was visited by President Ignacy Mościcki in 1930 (Miśkiewicz and Kamocki 2004: 99–100).8 In Warsaw, the country capital, the Muslim community differed from the com­ munities in the east, where Lithuanian­Polish Tatars prevailed. In Warsaw, Muslims were in majority refugees, former prisoners of war (of the Russian army) and ex­ Russian civil servants who did not want to go back to their homeland in the Soviet Union. They were Azerbaijanis, Circassians, Tatars from Crimea and the Volga region in Russia and Caucasian peoples (Tyszkiewicz 2002: 118). The community did not have any places of worship, and before World War I there were plans to build a small mosque in Warsaw. However, due to the War, the project was not started (Miśkiewicz and Kamocki 2004: 103). After the War, the Muslims still did not have anywhere to worship so they met in private houses or rented a room in the Eastern Institute to cel­ ebrate religious holidays (Miśkiewicz 1990: 92). Since not only Warsaw Muslims but also representatives of diplomatic missions of Muslim countries took part in prayers, an idea was conceived to build in Warsaw a representational mosque which would serve local communities and foreign Muslims (Miśkiewicz 1990: 92f). In 1928 a Mosque­Building Committee was established, which was independent from the Muslim Religious Union (Kołodziejczyk 1987). What is interesting is that it was not only Muslims who joined the Committee but also For more details see: Nalborczyk and Borecki (2011: 346f). Professor at Saint­Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering (Miśkiewicz 1990: 88f). He was the author of the mosque project in Saint Petersburg (Kryczyński 1937: 20). 8 President Mościcki’s first visit took place in Nowogródek on September 22, 1929. President prayed together with the worshippers for the prosperity of Poland (Miśkiewicz and Kamocki 2004: 110). 7 6 185 186 Muslims in Poland and Eastern Europe Catholics who were sympathetic to the initiative. Professor Olgierd Górka, Secretary­ General of the Eastern Institute, was among the supporters (Miśkiewicz and Kamocki 2004: 103). The Committee appealed to the Polish society as a whole, calling for finan­ cial contributions for the building of a mosque and highlighting the Tatar Muslims’ merits for Poland and the esteem Poland enjoyed in the Muslim world of that period (Miśkiewicz 1990: 93). The Committee also asked the Warsaw municipal authorities and Ministry of Public Works for land for the construction. After few years of discussions, the Committee was granted in 1934 a plot of 300 m2 and started work on the architectural plan. One year later a call for tender was announced and a panel of adjudicators was elected, composed of the Mufti, members of the Committee and representatives of the Polish Architects’ Association. The call for tender envisaged a building with a worship room for 300–350 persons, a library, a conference room, the chancellery of the Muftiate and the Mufti’s private apartment (Miśkiewicz 1990: 94f). After being built, the mosque was to be handed over to the Warsaw Muslim community (Miśkiewicz 1990: 93). The winning project was selected from among 67 projects submitted, but the construction works were not started before the outbreak of World War II due to the lack of financial resources.9 Mosques in Poland – current state of affairs There are three mosques in Poland at the moment.10 Two wooden mosques, the mosque in Kruszyniany and 19th century mosque in Bohoniki,11 are located in Podlachia and a new brick­build mosque was opened in 1990 in Gdańsk. Other Muslim communities in Poland have only prayer rooms. Even the largest Muslim community, MZR in Białystok, has only one prayer room in a communal wooden building that it has owned since the 1970s and which used to be a public library.12 18th century Construction of a mosque in Gdańsk – People’s Republic of Poland In Gdańsk, after 1945 the Tatars established a completely new local religious com­ munity. Being new, they had no place of prayer in the city and met at private houses. When in 1980 the community started considering the construction of a place of 9 Polish diplomatic missions in Muslim countries participated in the collection of money. However, they were not successful. Even Mufti Jakub Szynkiewicz’s trip to India in 1937 was a failure (Kołodziejczyk 1987). 10 After World War II two out of six mosques were destroyed in Soviet Lithuania – in Vilnius and Wiksznup (Pol. Wiksznupie), and six out of eight in Belarus – in Dowbuciszki, Lachowicze, Łowczyce, Minsk, Niekraszuńce and Osmołów (Drozd 1999: 15). 11 At the end of the 20th century there were projects to expand the mosque in Bohoniki. However, it was not well received by the majority of the community and heritage conservator (Miśkiewicz and Kamocki 2004: 106). 12 In the 1960s of the 20th century a construction of a new mosque in Białystok was consid­ ered (Miśkiewicz and Kamocki 2004: 104f). Agata S. Nalborczyk Mosques in Poland. Past and present prayer, the first idea was to create it in Dżemila Smajkiewicz­Murman’s family house. Mrs Smajkiewicz­Murman was since 1979 an elected president of the community and her father was a local imam. After some time, a mosque building committee was established with Stefan Mustafa Bajraszewski as president. It was Dżemila Smajkiewicz­Murman who raised the initial funds for construction, collecting money during religious holidays from the ambassadors of Muslim countries. She also selected the site for construction from among three sites proposed by the city. The money came mostly from fellow worshippers and benefactors both from Poland and abroad (from the Grand Mufti of Lebanon among others), diplomats and Muslim business­ men (Miśkiewicz and Kamocki 2004: 104). The brick mosque in Turkish style was designed by a Polish architect, Marian Wszelaki. The cornerstone was laid in 1984. The construction of the mosque was not an easy task. At that time it was difficult to acquire many building materials allotted by the state authorities.13 Dżemila Smajkiewicz­Murman exchanged missing building materials and equipment with a local parson, who was building a church in the neighborhood, in order to prevent delays in both constructions. The opening of the mosque took place in 1990 in the presence not only of fellow believers from abroad, but also the bishop of Gdańsk, arch­ bishop Tadeusz Gocłowski and the future President Lech Wałęsa,14 the legendary leader of ‘Solidarność’. The next President, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, visited the mosque in October 2001.15 187 Legal situation of religious organizations in contemporary Poland and construc­ tion of the sacred buildings A right to construct sacred buildings constitutes a factor of religious freedom and it is supervised by national legislation regulating the relationship between the State and religious authorities. Religious law, as provided for in the Constitution of April 2, 1997, implies a relaxed division between State and religion (article 25, paragraph 3).16 Article 53 of the Constitution of April 2, 1997 guarantees freedom of conscience and religion to every citizen, including possession of sanctuaries and other places of wor­ ship for the satisfaction of the needs of believers. Religions interact with the State by building churches and denominational organ­ izations in accordance with article 2 paragraph 1 of Act of May 17, 1989 on the 13 For more on the construction of the mosque see: Historia meczetu. Meczet w Gdańsku, http://www.meczetgdansk.pl/historia_meczetu.php (accessed: 18.08.2011). 14 Lech Wałęsa, before the rise of ‘Solidarność’ in 1980, worked in the Gdańsk Shipyard; he lives in Gdańsk. 15 Prezydent Kwaśniewski odwiedził gdański meczet. Wirtualna Polska, http://wiado­ mosci.wp.pl/kat,1342,title,Prezydent­Kwasniewski­odwiedzil­gdanski­meczet,wid,207731,wia­ domosc.html (retrieved: 18.08.2011). 16 Art. 25 par. 3: „The relationship between the State and churches and other religious organizations shall be based on the principle of respect for their autonomy and the mutual independence of each in its own sphere, as well as on the principle of cooperation for the indi­ vidual and the common good”. 188 Muslims in Poland and Eastern Europe Guarantees of Freedom of Conscience and Religion. The Basic Law guarantees that all churches and other denominational organizations shall have equal rights (article 25, paragraph 1). This means that all denominational organizations which are in the same situation have to enjoy equal rights. Pursuant to article 25 paragraph 3 denomination­ al organizations use their internal autonomy, i.e. they have the right to make their internal law and be self­governing, and the authorities cannot interfere in these processes. The State has no right to define the direction of religions or the functioning rules of their internal bodies, the State and religions are also financially independent from each other.17 Today Polish people can freely establish denominational organizations. If they wish to receive a legal entity status in accordance with their internal law, as well as rights and privileges envisioned by the state law for denominational organizations, they must register the organization in the Register of the Ministry of Interior and Administration based on the Act of May 17, 1989 on the Guarantees of Freedom of Conscience and Religion. To register there have to be at least 100 petitioners who are Polish citizens (Rynkowski 2005)18 and the registered association receives privileges of an officially recognized denomination.19 The relations between the Republic of Poland and churches and denominational organizations shall be determined by statutes adopted pursuant to agreements concluded between their appropriate representatives and the Council of Ministers (article 25, paragraph 5).20 The denominational organizations have to act within the legal framework and their activity „cannot violate prevailing regulations on the acts protecting public safe­ ty” (article 27, paragraph 1 and article 5 of the Act). In Poland according to the law, officially recognized denominational organiza­ tions are guaranteed rights and privileges. One such privilege is the right to construct sacred buildings as guaranteed by article 53 paragraph 2 of the Constitution of Poland: […] Freedom of religion shall also include possession of sanctuaries and other places of worship for the satisfaction of the needs of believers as well as the right of individuals, wherever they may be, to benefit from religious services. and art. 19 par. 2 of the Act of May 17, 1989 on the Guarantees of Freedom of Conscience and Religion:21 17 Religious organizations, as a rule, do not have the right to demand government grants – indirect or direct ones – for their religious and internal activities. 18 Before 1998, 15 Polish citizens could register a denominational organization (Rynkowski 2007: 292–293). In some European countries this number is much higher – e.g. in Slovakia, a much smaller country than Poland, there must be 20 thousand citizens to register a denomi­ national organization (Moravčíková 2005). In the Czech Republic this number is 10 thousand (Tretera 2005). 19 There are 154 religious and 5 inter­church organizations registered in the registry of churches and other denominational organization. 20 At present there are 15 churches and other denominational organizations operating on the basis of particular legal acts defining the relations between the state and each of these denominational organizations. 21 Dz. U. 1989 Nr 29 poz. 155, z 2005 r. Nr 231, poz. 1965, z 2009 r. Nr 98, poz. 817. Agata S. Nalborczyk Mosques in Poland. Past and present Churches and other denominational associations, when performing their reli­ gious functions may in particular: […] 6) make sacred investments and other church investments; 7) obtain, own and dispose chattels and real properties and to administer it […]. In order to accomplish their objectives, churches and denominational organiza­ tions have a right to receive donations (article 19, paragraph 2, point 8) including for­ eign donations (article 24 paragraph 2), and “to stay in touch with fellow­believers and participate in the works of religious organizations of international scope” (article 2, paragraph 6). There are five Islamic denominational organizations registered in Poland. Only two of them are Sunni Muslims organizations: Sunni Muslim Religious Union of the Republic of Poland (the oldest Muslim organization, established in 1925, MZR) and Sunni Muslim League (Liga Muzułmańska) which was registered in 2004. Among these organizations, the Muslim Religious Union is the most significant, accounting for approximately 5,000 members (the Muslim League has about 180 members), and is the only religious organization which operates on the basis of a special legal act, as the Polish Sejm has not repealed the Act of 21 April 1936 defining the relationship between the state and the MZR22. 189 Warsaw – a new mosque under construction Although the majority of Muslims of Poland live in Warsaw (approximately 10–11 thousand persons, with an estimated number of 20–35 thousand Muslims in Poland), there is no purpose­built mosque in the capital. The Muslim Religious Union has an adapted room of prayers in a 1992 villa in Wiertnicza Street. There is also an Islamic Centre and seat for the Warsaw communi­ ty. After 1989 the Union began efforts to regain the land granted before the World War II, which proved unsuccessful due to legal difficulties and so the Union requested a re­ placement lot. This request was refused by Warsaw Municipality and the Ministry of Interior and Administration. Furthermore, the Polish State today does not fund denominational organizations and churches and so the Union must attract funds from abroad.23 The majority of Muslims of immigrant origin, together with their families and converts, belong to a new Muslim denominational body, the Muslim League, which was set up in 2001 and registered with the Ministry of Interior and Administration in 2004. The Mazovian section of the League, whose seat is in Warsaw, meets in the 22 However, the act is anachronistic, as it has not been adapted to the new Polish Constitution of 1997. 23 Tomasz Miśkiewicz, Mufti of MZR, addressed such an appeal to the authorities of Organization of Islamic Conference, OIC, at the opening of an international symposium OIC on the situation and problems of Muslims in Eastern and Central Europe. The symposium took place on December 8, 2010 in Warsaw. 190 Muslims in Poland and Eastern Europe Islamic Center, MZR, in Wiertnicza Street as mentioned above.24 The Muslim League authorities decided to build a Center for Muslim Culture. A donation came from a Saudi Arabian sponsor who wished to remain anonymous until the opening of the building. A further donation was made by the fellow worshippers. By 2006 the project, the purchase of the lot and the plans for the building were completed. The project of the Center for Muslim Culture envisages a room of prayers covered by a dome, a minaret eighteen meters high (azan will not be audible), a con­ ference room, a cafeteria and a commercial section (Wojtczuk and Urzykowski 2010). In 2008 building permission was granted and the construction works began. The walls started to be visible above the ground in 2010 and the works continued until summer 2010 when they stopped due to problems with the construction company. The works have now recommenced and the building will be ready in time for the Euro 2012 European football championship taking place in Warsaw.25 On February 25, 2010 Gazeta Stołeczna, a Warsaw supplement of Gazeta Wyborcza, published an article „A mosque for eleven thousand Warsaw Muslims is being constructed” (Wojtczuk and Urzykowski 2010). It attracted attention to the mosque built since 2008 by the Muslim League and four weeks later it was announced that on March 27, 2010 a demonstration against the mosque would take place, organ­ ized by “Europe of the Future”, who made accusations of fundamentalist danger and connections with foreign Muslim movements and organizations, including the Muslim Brotherhood.26 The source of the danger was supposed to be the League’s affiliation with the Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe (FIOE) with mem­ bers connected with the Muslim Brotherhood who were alleged to influence the League’s activity in Poland.27 Other allegations were a potential danger of massive Muslim immigration28 or the supposedly Wahhabi facet of Islam professed by the members of the League.29 However, on March 23, 2010 in the morning program on Radio Eska the leader of “Europe of the Future” admitted to not having any evidence proving the connections of the Muslim Brotherhood with the Muslim League and its potential danger for the Polish State. The protest announcement and the Association’s 24 See: http://www.islam.info.pl/liga­muzulmanska/oddzialy/warszawa­oddzial­mazo­ wiecki. Other sections of the League have local Islamic Centers and rooms of prayers. 25 For Muslim football supporters from abroad. 26 Kto buduje meczet w Warszawie?, http://www.euroislam.pl/index.php/2010/03/kto­ buduje­meczet­w­warszawie (accessed 22.03.2011). 27 Jan Wójcik, the head of the “Europe of future” said in Gazeta Stołeczna: “We are protest­ ing because the Muslim League of Poland is connected with Muslim Brotherhood of radical Muslim fundamentalists” (Machajski and Urzykowski 2010). However, Muslim Brotherhood is not a homogenous organization. In Jordan it is known for its moderation and its members work in the government. 28 They wrote in the protest appeal: “We don’t agree with the islamization of Poland”; Minarety jak głowice rakiet. Agresywni islamiści w Polsce?, Wirtualna Polska, http://konflik­ ty.wp.pl/kat,1371,title,Minarety­jak­glowice­rakiet­Agresywni­islamisci­w­Polsce,wid,12114536, wiadomosc.html (accessed 22.03.2011). 29 Kto buduje meczet w Warszawie?, http://www.euroislam.pl/index.php/2010/03/kto­ buduje­meczet­w­warszawie (accessed 22.03.2011). For more see: http://www.euroislam.pl. Agata S. Nalborczyk Mosques in Poland. Past and present appeal were signed by March 24, 2010 by 2,000 fans on Facebook, some of whom were proponents of nationalist and fascism­oriented All­Polish Youth (Machajski and Urzykowski 2010). On March 27, 2010 a demonstration against the building of the Center for Muslim Culture took place. One hundred persons protested against the Center30 and few dozen supported it (some sources indicate 20 persons).31 Shortly after the demonstration, the Common Council of Catholics and Muslms and the Association of Polish Jews, B’nai B’rith Polin, published announcements on the issue. The Council referred to Polish denominational law and the right to con­ struct sacred buildings and also to the Polish Pope, John Paul II, the first pope in a his­ tory to visit a mosque, the Great Mosque of Damascus in 2001. The Jewish organiza­ tion compared stirring the anti­Arab atmosphere to anti­Semitism, thus making ref­ erence to events and ideology which resulted in pogroms and the Holocaust. Both organizations pointed out the traditional tolerance of the Polish State towards follow­ ers of different religions. The Warsaw authorities were surprised by the protests. The press officer of the town hall, Tomasz Andryszczyk, said that all the building formalities had been fin­ ished in 2008 and there were no legal reasons to revoke the permission. Thus, from the legal point of view the protest was unfounded.32 As the authorities of the Muslim League say, the Center of Muslim Culture should be ready in time for the European football championship which will take place in Warsaw in 2012 and the Muslim football supporters will have a place to pray. 191 Conclusion Since the beginning of their presence in Poland, Polish Muslims enjoyed freedom of religion and the right to construct mosques. The first Islam followers, the Tatars, freely constructed wooden buildings in their towns and villages which served as places of prayers and meetings for local authorities. Sources record only one incidence of vio­ lence, towards sacred Muslim buildings. In the 20th century, in the Second Polish Republic and Polish People’s Republic, the Muslims benefited then as they do also now from the fact that Islam is an official­ ly­recognized religion. Denominational organizations are recognized by the State and have a right to construct sacred buildings. However, only one mosque (in Gdańsk) was constructed in the 20th century. Before the World War II, although the Muslims did not have sufficient money to construct the mosques planned in Vilnius and Warsaw, 30 G. Szymanik (2010) in Gazeta Wyborcza wrote there were 200 protesters; this number was also mentioned on the demonstration notification submitted to the authorities. T. Pruchnik (2010), councilor in the Law and Justice party, cited 150 persons. 31 Szymanik (2010) mentioned several dozen; Pruchnik (2010) said there were 20 support­ ers. 32 He said: “The decisions and negotiations in this matter were accomplished long time ago. This investment is being done according to the procedures. As a matter of fact, what are we expected to do?” (Machajski and Urzykowski 2010). 192 Muslims in Poland and Eastern Europe they had a legal right to do so. The situation is similar now. 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Węda, Ł.R. (2009). Parafia muzułmańska w Studziance – zarys dziejów (1679–1915). Przegląd Tatarski, 3, 4–7. Wojtczuk, M. & Urzykowski, T. (2010, February 25th). Powstaje meczet dla 11 tys. warszawskich muzułmanów. Gazeta Wyborcza, http://warszawa.gazeta.pl/war­ szawa/2029020,34889,7599215.html (accessed 22.03.2011). 193 Muslims in Eastern Europe Widening the European Discourse on Islam edited by Katarzyna Górak-Sosnowska a University of Warsaw Faculty of Oriental Studies Warszawa 2011 © by Katarzyna Górak­Sosnowska and the Authors © by the Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Warsaw, Poland Cover design: Wiktor Dyndo Projekt jest współfinansowany przez Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w ramach cyklicznego programu Promocja wiedzy o Polsce. The project is co­financed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland within the framework of Promotion knowledge about Poland program. ISBN 978­83­903229­5­7 Druk i oprawa: Zakład Graficzny Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego ul. Krakowskie Przedmieście 26/28 00­927 Warszawa Poland